Thesis Outline: Legal Responses to Climate Change Effects on Marine Biodiversity in Sierra Leone

A detailed outline for an LLM thesis on how law responds to the effects of climate change on marine biodiversity in Sierra Leone.

A RISING TIDE OF OBLIGATIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE LEGAL REACTIONS TO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY IN SIERRA LEONE Preliminary Pages

• Title Page
• Declaration
• Abstract
• Acknowledgements
• Table of Contents
• List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
• List of Treaties and Statutes
• List of Cases

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background: The Nexus of Climate Change, Marine Ecosystems, and Law in Sierra Leone Sierra Leone, a nation situated on the low-lying coastline of West Africa, finds itself at the forefront of the global climate crisis. Despite its negligible contribution to the historical accumulation of greenhouse gases—estimated at less than 0.01% of total cumulative global emissions—the country is disproportionately affected by the adverse impacts of climate change. This acute vulnerability is compounded by its heavy reliance on natural resources for economic stability and the subsistence of its population. The nation's marine and coastal ecosystems are not merely geographical features; they are the bedrock of its economy, the primary source of food security, and the foundation of livelihoods for a significant portion of its citizens. The fisheries sector, in particular, is a vital component of the national fabric. It contributes approximately 10% to the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and provides direct and indirect employment for over half a million people. Critically, fish supplies about 80% of the total animal protein consumed in the country, placing the marine environment at the center of national food security. This profound dependence on marine biodiversity means that any degradation of these ecosystems translates directly into heightened socio-economic precarity.

The escalating ecological crisis, driven by anthropogenic climate change, manifests through severe and tangible threats to this vital marine environment. These threats include accelerated sea-level rise, increasing ocean acidification, the degradation of critical habitats such as mangroves, and a higher frequency of extreme weather events. This confluence of environmental stressors necessitates a robust, coherent, and effective legal response. The central premise of this thesis is that the integrity of Sierra Leone's marine biodiversity, and by extension its national security and development prospects, is contingent upon the adequacy of its legal and institutional frameworks to confront the challenges posed by climate change. This research, therefore, constitutes a critical inquiry into the nature and effectiveness of that legal reaction.

1.2. Statement of the Problem: The Inadequacy of Legal Responses to an Ecological Crisis

The primary legal problem confronting Sierra Leone is not the absence of law, but a profound and persistent gap between the law as written (de jure) and its application and effect in practice (de facto). The nation possesses a multifaceted legal architecture for environmental governance, comprising a national constitution, numerous statutes, and a suite of national policies and strategies.3 Furthermore, Sierra Leone has demonstrated its commitment to global environmental norms by ratifying a significant number of multilateral environmental agreements, including the foundational treaties on climate change, biological diversity, and the law of the sea.12 Despite this extensive legal and policy framework, the country's marine biodiversity remains under severe and intensifying threat from the impacts of climate change. Coastal communities are being displaced, critical mangrove habitats are being lost at an alarming rate, and fish stocks—the lifeblood of the coastal economy—are facing collapse. This disconnect suggests a systemic failure in the legal system's capacity to translate obligations into tangible protective outcomes. The problem is one of an "implementation and efficacy gap," a phenomenon widely observed in scholarly and institutional reviews of Sierra Leone's environmental governance. This thesis will investigate the legal, institutional, and practical dimensions of this gap, seeking to understand why a seemingly comprehensive legal framework has proven inadequate in safeguarding the nation's marine biodiversity from an existential ecological crisis.

1.3. Research Questions

To structure this inquiry, the research is guided by a primary question and a set of subordinate questions designed to deconstruct the central problem into manageable analytical components. These questions progress from a doctrinal assessment of legal obligations to an empirical evaluation of their implementation and effectiveness.

1.3.1. Primary Question

To what extent does the existing legal framework in Sierra Leone effectively address the adverse impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity?

1.3.2. Secondary Questions

a. What are the specific obligations of Sierra Leone under international, regional, and national law to protect marine biodiversity from climate change impacts?

b. How are the key climate impacts—sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and ecosystem degradation—addressed within Sierra Leone’s domestic legal and policy instruments?

c. What are the primary legal, institutional, and practical barriers hindering the effective implementation of these instruments?

d. What specific legal and institutional reforms are necessary to enhance Sierra Leone’s resilience and response to these challenges?

1.4. Significance and Contribution of the Research

This thesis aims to make a significant and original contribution to legal scholarship and environmental policy in Sierra Leone. To date, while sectoral studies on fisheries, climate vulnerability, or environmental law exist, there has been no comprehensive, integrated legal analysis of the specific nexus between climate change, marine biodiversity, and the law in the Sierra Leonean context. This research will fill that gap by synthesizing the distinct but overlapping legal regimes governing climate change, biodiversity conservation, and marine resource management.

Its primary significance lies in its diagnostic and prescriptive approach. By moving beyond a mere description of the law to a critical analysis of its implementation failures, the research will identify specific points of weakness in the legal and institutional architecture. The final recommendations will therefore not be abstract principles but targeted, evidence-based proposals for legislative amendment, institutional reform, and policy realignment. As such, this work is intended to be of practical value to policymakers, legislators, judicial officers, and civil society organizations in Sierra Leone working to strengthen environmental governance and build climate resilience.

1.5. Delimitation of the Study

The scope of this thesis is carefully circumscribed to ensure a focused and in-depth analysis. The study is confined to the legal framework as it applies to the marine environment falling under the jurisdiction of Sierra Leone. While it acknowledges the critical role of land-based activities—such as agriculture, deforestation, and mining—as drivers of marine pollution and coastal degradation, a detailed doctrinal analysis of the corresponding terrestrial legal regimes is beyond its scope. These issues will be addressed only insofar as they directly impact the marine environment and are regulated by the primary environmental and coastal management laws under review.

The research focuses on the legal and institutional reactions to climate change impacts. It is not a scientific study of climate change nor an economic analysis of its costs, although it draws heavily upon scientific and economic data to establish the factual context for the legal analysis. The temporal scope covers the period from the enactment of Sierra Leone's key post-conflict environmental legislation to the present day, allowing for an assessment of the evolution and current state of the legal framework.

1.6. Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is structured into six chapters, following a logical progression from context to analysis and conclusion, in accordance with established conventions for legal dissertations. Chapter 2 establishes the scientific and socio-economic context, detailing the specific impacts of climate change on Sierra Leone's marine environment and the profound consequences for its coastal communities. This chapter provides the factual predicate for the legal analysis that follows.

Chapter 3 conducts a doctrinal analysis of the international and regional legal frameworks binding on Sierra Leone. It examines the key obligations arising from the global regimes on climate change, biodiversity, and the law of the sea, as well as the regional Abidjan Convention.

Chapter 4 turns to the domestic sphere, providing a doctrinal analysis of Sierra Leone's national constitution, key statutes, and policies relevant to the protection of the marine environment. It assesses the de jure alignment of this domestic framework with the international obligations identified in Chapter 3.

Chapter 5 presents a critical analysis of the implementation and enforcement of the domestic legal framework. It moves from the law on the books to the law in action, identifying the institutional, financial, political, and practical barriers that undermine the effectiveness of the legal regime.

Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by synthesizing the findings, providing direct answers to the research questions, and offering a set of concrete, actionable recommendations for legal and institutional reform designed to bridge the gap between legal aspiration and environmental reality.

CHAPTER 2: THE SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN SIERRA LEONE'S MARINE ENVIRONMENT

A cogent legal analysis of environmental governance must be grounded in a firm understanding of the biophysical realities and human dimensions of the problem. This chapter synthesizes scientific data and socio-economic reporting to establish the factual foundation for this thesis. It details the primary impacts of climate change on Sierra Leone's marine environment, elucidates the consequences for marine biodiversity, and outlines the severe ramifications for the nation's coastal communities. This context demonstrates the scale and urgency of the challenge that the legal framework is intended to address.

2.1. The Biophysical Impacts of Climate Change

Sierra Leone's coastal zone is experiencing a multifaceted assault from climate change, manifesting in physical and chemical alterations to the marine environment. These impacts are not future hypotheticals; they are observable, accelerating, and already causing significant harm. 2.1.1. Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Erosion The most visible and immediate threat is the inexorable rise of the sea. Global mean sea level has been rising at an accelerating rate, driven by the thermal expansion of warming ocean waters and the melting of land-based ice. For a low-lying coastal nation like Sierra Leone, this global phenomenon translates into a local crisis. A 2024 study by the National Disaster Management Agency (NDMA) and the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) concluded that more than two million people along Sierra Leone's coasts are threatened by rising sea levels. This is not merely a projection; coastal erosion is actively claiming four to six meters of coastline per year in some areas. The real-world impacts are devastating and poignantly captured in the experiences of coastal inhabitants. On islands like Nyangai and Plantain, entire communities are witnessing their homes, infrastructure, and ancestral lands disappear into the Atlantic.

Residents speak of football fields and houses that now lie under water. On Plantain Island, the historic quarters of a slave merchant, once a tourist attraction connected to the mainland, are now a separate, eroding islet accessible only by boat. The minaret of a submerged mosque pokes out from the waves, a stark monument to the land that has been lost. This physical process is exacerbated by human activities. Unregulated sand mining for construction weakens beaches, while the removal of mangrove forests for firewood and housing eliminates a critical natural barrier against the sea, leaving communities increasingly vulnerable to storm surges and erosion. 2.1.2. Ocean Warming and Acidification Less visible than coastal erosion but potentially more systemic in its impact are the chemical changes occurring within the ocean itself. As the ocean absorbs a significant portion of the excess carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) from the atmosphere, its chemistry is altered, leading to a decrease in pH—a process known as ocean acidification. This "osteoporosis of the sea" has profound biological consequences, particularly for calcifying organisms that form the base of many marine food webs. For Sierra Leone's marine ecosystem, this poses a grave threat. Ocean acidification impairs the ability of shelled molluscs, crustaceans, and the larval stages of many commercially important fish to build and maintain their shells and skeletons. The resulting lower survival rates for these foundational species can trigger a cascade of negative effects throughout the food web, ultimately impacting the larger fish stocks that the nation's fisheries depend upon. While the dramatic imagery of a collapsing coastline is more immediate, the slow, silent crisis of ocean acidification threatens to unravel the very productivity of Sierra Leone's marine ecosystem from the bottom up.

2.1.3. Extreme Weather Events and Altered Hydrology

Climate change is also altering weather patterns, leading to an increased frequency and intensity of extreme events. Sierra Leone is experiencing more erratic and intense rainfall, leading to severe flooding and landslides in coastal cities like Freetown. These torrential rains, combined with rising sea levels, create a compound threat. Storm surges penetrate further inland, contaminating freshwater sources and estuaries with saltwater. This saline intrusion degrades critical nursery habitats for many marine species that rely on the brackish water of estuaries for breeding and early life stages, further jeopardizing the reproductive cycle of fish populations.

2.2. The Consequences for Marine Biodiversity

The cumulative effect of these biophysical stressors is a significant degradation of marine biodiversity, characterized by the loss of critical habitats and the decline of keystone species.

2.2.1. Degradation of Critical Habitats: The Case of Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forests are a keystone ecosystem for Sierra Leone's coast, providing a suite of irreplaceable ecosystem services. Their dense, interlocking root systems stabilize the coastline, dissipate wave energy, and act as a natural sea defense against storms and erosion. They also serve as vital nursery and breeding grounds for a vast array of fish and crustacean species, directly supporting the productivity of coastal fisheries. Furthermore, mangroves are exceptionally effective carbon sinks, sequestering large amounts of atmospheric carbon and thus playing a role in mitigating climate change. Despite their critical importance, Sierra Leone's mangroves are being lost at an alarming rate. Between 1990 and 2020, the country lost approximately 2,000 hectares of mangrove forest annually. This degradation is driven by a dual threat: climate-related stress from sea-level rise, which "drowns" the forests, and direct anthropogenic pressures. Coastal communities, often facing poverty and a lack of alternative energy sources, rely heavily on mangrove wood for fuel (especially for smoking fish) and construction materials. This creates a destructive feedback loop: climate impacts exacerbate poverty, which in turn drives the unsustainable exploitation of the very ecosystems that provide a natural defense against those impacts. This cycle is intensified by a lack of robust legal protection; in many areas, mangrove management is governed not by formal law but by traditional practices, which are often insufficient to withstand modern pressures. 2.2.2. Threats to Keystone Species and Fisheries Stocks The combination of habitat loss, food web disruption from ocean acidification, and altered ocean conditions due to warming and saline intrusion places immense pressure on Sierra Leone's fish stocks. The degradation of mangrove nurseries reduces the reproductive success of many species. Changes in water temperature and chemistry can alter fish migration patterns and reduce survival rates. The result is a direct threat to the abundance and diversity of the fish populations that form the basis of the national fishing industry. 2.2.3. Overall Loss of Ecosystem Resilience and Services The loss of biodiversity is not merely an ecological concern; it represents a direct loss of the "ecosystem services" upon which human well-being depends. The degradation of mangrove forests and coral reefs (which are also highly vulnerable to warming and acidification) diminishes the natural protection afforded to coastal communities, increasing their exposure to floods and storms. The decline in fish stocks represents a loss of the provisioning service of food. The contamination of estuaries impairs the water filtration services that these ecosystems provide. In essence, climate change is eroding the natural capital asset base of Sierra Leone's coastal zone.

2.3. The Socio-Economic Ramifications for Coastal Communities

The ecological crisis translates directly into a human and economic crisis for the millions of Sierra Leoneans living along the coast. The impacts are most acutely felt in the interconnected realms of livelihoods, food security, and human displacement.

2.3.1. Impacts on Livelihoods: The Artisanal Fishing Sector

The artisanal fishing sector is the economic engine of coastal Sierra Leone. It provides direct employment to an estimated 200,000 people and supports the livelihoods of at least 600,000 more through processing and trade. This sector, characterized by small-scale fishers in wooden canoes, is highly vulnerable to both the decline in fish stocks and the increase in dangerous weather conditions at sea. As fish become scarcer and storms more frequent, fishers must travel further and take greater risks for smaller catches, leading directly to reduced income, increased poverty, and heightened food insecurity for their families. 2.3.2. Food Security, Displacement, and Increased Vulnerability The decline of the fisheries sector has national implications for food security. With fish providing the vast majority of animal protein in the national diet, reduced catches threaten to create a nutritional crisis. Simultaneously, sea-level rise is creating a generation of climate-displaced persons. Entire communities on islands like Plantain and the Turtle Islands have been forced to abandon their homes and relocate inland, often losing their assets and social networks in the process. This displacement, coupled with the loss of livelihoods and the increased risk from floods and storms, traps coastal communities in a state of heightened and perpetual vulnerability. 2.4. Establishing the Factual Predicate for Legal Analysis The evidence presented in this chapter establishes a clear and compelling factual predicate for the legal analysis that forms the core of this thesis. The impacts of climate change on Sierra Leone's marine environment are not abstract or distant; they are scientifically documented, severe, and are inflicting profound and measurable harm on the nation's biodiversity, economy, and people. This dire situation creates an urgent and undeniable imperative for an effective legal and institutional response. The subsequent chapters will assess the extent to which Sierra Leone's legal framework is capable of meeting this existential challenge.

CHAPTER 3: THE INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Sierra Leone's domestic legal obligations to protect its marine environment do not exist in a vacuum. They are shaped and mandated by a comprehensive architecture of international and regional law. As a party to the foundational treaties on climate change, biological diversity, and the law of the sea, Sierra Leone is bound by a suite of obligations that directly address the nexus of climate change and marine biodiversity. This chapter conducts a doctrinal analysis of these key international and regional instruments to delineate the specific legal duties that should inform and guide Sierra Leone's national response.

3.1. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Regime

The international climate change regime, comprising the UNFCCC and its Paris Agreement, establishes the primary framework for global climate action. While focused on emissions mitigation, it also contains crucial obligations related to adaptation and the protection of natural ecosystems.

3.1.1. The Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)

The UNFCCC is founded on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" (CBDR-RC). This principle acknowledges that while all states share a common responsibility to address climate change, developed countries bear a greater historical responsibility and possess greater capabilities to lead climate action. For Sierra Leone, this principle is fundamental. It frames the country's obligations in the context of its status as a Least Developed Country (LDC) that is highly vulnerable to climate impacts but has contributed minimally to their cause. Consequently, the regime emphasizes the provision of financial and technical support from developed to developing countries to enable them to undertake mitigation and adaptation actions. 3.1.2. Commitments under the Convention and the Paris Agreement Article 4 of the UNFCCC outlines commitments applicable to all Parties. These are not merely aspirational; they constitute binding legal obligations. Of particular relevance to this thesis, Article 4.1 requires all Parties to:

• Promote sustainable management, and cooperate in the conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, explicitly including "oceans as well as other terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems" (Art. 4.1(d)). This creates a direct obligation to protect and restore ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass beds for their carbon sequestration function.
• Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change and develop "appropriate and integrated plans for coastal zone management" (Art. 4.1(e)). This provides a clear mandate for proactive coastal planning.
• Take climate change considerations into account in relevant social, economic, and environmental policies and actions (Art. 4.1(f)).

The Paris Agreement builds upon this foundation, significantly strengthening the global focus on adaptation. Article 7 establishes a global goal on adaptation, which is to enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, and reduce vulnerability to climate change. Critically, Article 7.9 mandates that all Parties shall, as appropriate, "engage in adaptation planning processes and the implementation of actions," including the formulation of national adaptation plans (NAPs). Furthermore, Parties are expected to submit and periodically update an "adaptation communication," outlining their priorities, needs, and actions. These provisions transform adaptation from a secondary concern into a central, mandatory component of a Party's obligations under the climate regime.

3.1.3. Analysis of Sierra Leone’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs)

The NDCs and NAPs are the primary instruments through which Parties communicate their commitments and strategies under the Paris Agreement and the broader UNFCCC framework. A critical analysis of Sierra Leone's submissions is therefore essential to assess its de jure response.

Sierra Leone's updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) explicitly recognizes the importance of the marine environment. Its vision includes a commitment to "Maintain the integrity of the marine and coastal environment". This is a positive step, demonstrating high-level policy recognition of the issue. However, the specific actions and targets within the NDC must be scrutinized for their concreteness and ambition. The country's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) of 2007 and the subsequent initial National Adaptation Plan (iNAP) are more detailed. The NAPA identified "Coastal Zones and Marine Ecosystems" and "Fisheries" as key sectors of vulnerability. It proposed priority adaptation projects, including the development of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan, the rehabilitation of degraded coastal habitats, and the promotion of sustainable fishing practices. The iNAP continues this focus, identifying Coastal Zone Management as a priority sector. The legal analysis must therefore assess whether these plans have been effectively translated from policy documents into funded, implemented actions with a basis in national law.

3.2. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The CBD provides the principal international legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of all biological diversity, including marine biodiversity. Its obligations are directly relevant to countering the ecosystem degradation caused by climate change.

3.2.1. Obligations for In-Situ Conservation (Article 8) and Sustainable Use

The core of the CBD's conservation mandate lies in Article 8, which focuses on in-situ conservation—the conservation of ecosystems and species in their natural habitats.52 This article creates a suite of binding obligations for Sierra Leone, including the duty to:

• Establish a system of protected areas (Art. 8(a)).
• Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats, and the maintenance of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings (Art. 8(d)).
• Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened species (Art. 8(f)).
• Control or eradicate alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species (Art. 8(h)).

These obligations provide a direct legal basis for actions such as establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), undertaking mangrove restoration projects, and managing marine resources to maintain viable populations in the face of climate stressors.

3.2.2. National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) as an Implementation Tool

Article 6 of the CBD mandates that each Party develop a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). This instrument is the primary vehicle for domesticating the Convention's objectives. Sierra Leone's NBSAP for 2017-2026 acknowledges the need to integrate environmental sustainability into national development and references key domestic laws like the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) Act and the National Protected Areas Authority (NPAA) Act. A crucial part of the legal analysis is to evaluate how effectively this national strategy identifies climate change as a primary driver of biodiversity loss and integrates climate adaptation measures into its conservation actions.

3.3. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

UNCLOS is often referred to as the "constitution for the oceans," establishing the overarching legal framework for all activities at sea. Its provisions on environmental protection, found in Part XII, create powerful and comprehensive obligations.

3.3.1. The General Obligation to Protect and Preserve the Marine Environment (Part XII)

Part XII of UNCLOS establishes a legal regime for marine environmental protection that is both broad and binding. The foundational principle is articulated in Article 192, which states unequivocally: "States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment". This is not a qualified or aspirational statement but a general and binding duty.

This duty is elaborated in Article 194, which requires States to "take, individually or jointly as appropriate, all measures... that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source".56 The phrase "from any source" is critically important, as it includes pollution from land-based sources, from activities on the seabed, by dumping, and from or through the atmosphere. This provides a strong, albeit under-utilized, legal basis for arguing that the atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic $CO_2$ into the ocean, which causes ocean acidification, constitutes a form of pollution that States are obligated to control. Indeed, Sierra Leone itself, in a 2023 written statement to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), acknowledged that the obligations under Part XII are "particularly important in providing the steps needed for States to address the threats posed by climate change".2 This suggests a recognition at the state level of the potential for UNCLOS to be a powerful tool in the climate fight.

3.3.2. Provisions on Land-Based Pollution and Protection of Fragile Ecosystems

Beyond the general duty, UNCLOS contains specific provisions highly relevant to Sierra Leone's situation. Article 207 explicitly requires States to adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce, and control marine pollution from land-based sources. This has direct implications for managing agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and poor waste management in coastal areas, all of which can exacerbate the stress on marine ecosystems already weakened by climate change. Furthermore, Article 194(5) specifically obligates States to take measures necessary to "protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species." This provides a direct international law mandate for the protection of Sierra Leone's vulnerable mangrove forests, estuaries, and potential coral reef systems.

3.4. The Abidjan Convention and its Protocols

As a regional instrument, the Convention for Cooperation in the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Atlantic Coast of the West, Central and Southern Africa Region (Abidjan Convention) provides a more geographically focused framework for cooperation. Sierra Leone is a Contracting Party and is therefore bound by its provisions. 3.4.1. Regional Cooperation for the Protection of the Atlantic Coast The Abidjan Convention establishes a framework for Parties to cooperate in combating marine pollution and ensuring the sound environmental management of the region's marine and coastal areas. Its strength lies in its ability to foster harmonized approaches to transboundary issues, such as the management of shared fish stocks and regional marine pollution.

3.4.2. Analysis of the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

Of particular importance is the Additional Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management, adopted in 2019. This protocol provides a specific legal mandate for Parties to adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the management of coastal areas. ICZM is a process that brings together all stakeholders to make informed decisions about the sustainable use, development, and protection of coastal resources, directly addressing the interconnected pressures of population growth, economic activity, and environmental degradation that characterize Sierra Leone's coast. 3.4.3. Analysis of the Protocol on Sustainable Management of Mangroves Also adopted in 2019, the Additional Protocol on the Sustainable Management of Mangroves provides a targeted legal instrument to address the severe degradation of this critical ecosystem. It obligates Parties to take specific measures for the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of their mangrove forests. For Sierra Leone, where mangroves are under immense pressure, this protocol offers a powerful tool. However, the effectiveness of both this and the ICZM protocol is entirely contingent on their ratification and subsequent domestication into national law. As of late 2023, there were regional efforts to encourage parliamentarians, including those from Sierra Leone, to advance the ratification process. 3.5. Synthesis: A Web of Interlocking Obligations for Sierra Leone The international and regional legal instruments analyzed in this chapter do not operate in isolation. They form a coherent and mutually reinforcing "web of interlocking obligations." The duty to develop an integrated coastal zone management plan under the UNFCCC (Art. 4.1(e)) is mirrored and detailed by the Abidjan Convention's ICZM Protocol. The obligation to protect and restore degraded ecosystems under the CBD (Art. 8(f)) is given specific form by the Abidjan Convention's Mangrove Protocol. The general duty to protect the marine environment under UNCLOS (Art. 192) provides the foundational legal principle that animates all of these more specific commitments.

This convergence of mandates from different legal regimes reveals a powerful international consensus. Actions required for climate adaptation, such as restoring mangroves to serve as a natural sea defense, are often identical to actions required for biodiversity conservation. An effective national strategy, therefore, should not treat these as separate policy streams but as integrated components of a single, overarching duty to ensure the resilience and health of the marine environment. The failure to adopt such an integrated approach at the national level suggests a significant inefficiency in implementation and a failure to fully leverage the synergies inherent in international environmental law.

CHAPTER 4: SIERRA LEONE’S DOMESTIC LEGAL AND POLICY RESPONSE

Having established the extensive obligations incumbent upon Sierra Leone under international and regional law, this chapter turns to the domestic legal landscape. It undertakes a doctrinal analysis of the key national legal and policy instruments designed to govern the environment and marine resources. The objective is to map the de jure framework and assess, on paper, how it is structured to address the climate-induced threats identified in Chapter 2 and to implement the international commitments detailed in Chapter 3.

4.1. Constitutional and Foundational Provisions for Environmental Protection

The Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1991, as the supreme law of the land, provides the ultimate foundation for all environmental governance. However, unlike more modern constitutions, it does not contain an explicit, standalone, or justiciable right to a healthy environment. Environmental protection is addressed indirectly through other provisions. The most relevant of these is Section 18(1)(h), which provides that the freedom of movement guaranteed under the Constitution can be subject to laws that are "reasonably required in the interests of... the conservation of the natural resources, such as mineral, marine, forest and other resources of Sierra Leone". While this provision acknowledges the conservation of marine resources as a legitimate basis for restricting a fundamental right, its utility as a proactive tool for environmental protection is limited. It is framed as a permissible limitation on rights rather than a positive duty on the state. This indirect constitutional grounding means that the impetus for environmental protection must be found primarily in statutory law, rather than being driven by a strong, rights-based constitutional mandate.

4.2. The Environment Protection Agency Act, 2022: A Framework for Governance

The Environment Protection Agency Act of 2022 is the cornerstone of Sierra Leone's modern environmental law. It repealed and replaced the original 2008 Act, seeking to provide for more effective and efficient environmental management. The Act establishes the primary institution for environmental governance and sets out its core functions and powers.

4.2.1. The Mandate of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The 2022 Act vests the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA-SL) with a broad and powerful mandate. The Agency is tasked with overseeing all environmental matters in the country, acting as the principal body to advise the government on environmental policy, and ensuring compliance with all environmental laws and regulations. Its functions include coordinating climate change actions, developing environmental standards, promoting environmental education, and serving as the national focal point for environmental issues. This centralized mandate positions the EPA as the lead institution for orchestrating a national response to environmental challenges.

4.2.2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a Tool for Climate Adaptation

A key regulatory tool provided by the Act is the mandatory Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process, detailed in Part IV. Any project or activity listed in the Act's First Schedule—which includes infrastructure, industrial activities, waste management, and housing development schemes—is prohibited without a valid EIA license issued by the Agency. This process is critical for preventing poorly planned coastal developments that could exacerbate climate vulnerability. The analysis of this provision must focus on whether the statutory criteria and implementing regulations for EIAs explicitly and mandatorily require project proponents to assess and mitigate risks related to climate change, such as sea-level rise, increased storm surge, and coastal erosion. While the framework exists, its effectiveness hinges on the specificity of its climate-related requirements.

4.2.3. Provisions on Marine Pollution and Coastal Management

The 2022 Act contains specific provisions that grant the EPA authority over the marine and coastal environment. The Agency is explicitly tasked with the "management, protection and development of the marine and coastal environment". This includes regulating the unsustainable exploitation of coastal resources like sand, monitoring marine pollution, and supporting the development of marine spatial planning. These provisions provide the EPA with a clear legal basis to intervene in activities that degrade marine biodiversity.

4.3. The Fisheries and Aquaculture Act, 2018

The Fisheries and Aquaculture Act of 2018 represents a significant modernization of the legal framework governing Sierra Leone's most important marine resource. It moves away from a purely extractive model towards one based on principles of sustainability and ecosystem health.

4.3.1. Incorporating the Precautionary and Ecosystem-Based Approaches

A central feature of the 2018 Act is its formal adoption of modern fisheries management principles. Section 9 explicitly states that a key objective is to ensure the "proper conservation of fishery resources through the prevention of overfishing and the taking of a precautionary approach toward harvesting". Furthermore, the Act defines and incorporates the "ecosystem approach to fisheries," which requires management to balance societal objectives by considering the interactions between biotic, abiotic, and human components of the ecosystem. These principles, if implemented, require a shift from managing single fish stocks in isolation to managing the health of the entire marine ecosystem upon which those stocks depend.

4.3.2. Provisions for Marine Protected Areas and Fisheries Management Plans

The Act provides the legal mechanisms to translate these principles into action. It empowers the Minister to develop and implement Fisheries Management Plans for specific fish stocks or areas. These plans can establish conservation measures such as area and seasonal closures, gear restrictions, and catch limits. The Act also allows for the delegation of management responsibility to local authorities and Community Management Associations, and provides a basis for the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) as a tool for fisheries management. 4.4. The National Protected Areas Authority and Conservation Trust Fund Act, 2012 This Act established a specialized body, the National Protected Areas Authority (NPAA), with a mandate focused on biodiversity conservation through a network of protected areas. 4.4.1. Mandate for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation The NPAA Act is notable for its explicit recognition of the link between conservation and climate change. Section 12(2)(x) of the Act assigns the Authority the specific responsibility for "developing policies and strategies for adapting the National Protected Areas system to the impacts of climate change". This provision is of critical importance, as it creates a direct and unambiguous legal mandate for climate adaptation within the context of biodiversity protection. It provides a powerful legal hook for integrating climate resilience measures into the management of existing and future Marine Protected Areas. However, this explicit mandate appears to be siloed within the NPAA. A review of the core functions of the EPA in the 2022 Act and the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources in the 2018 Act reveals a focus on pollution control, EIAs, and stock management, respectively, but not an equally explicit, primary mandate to drive national climate adaptation within their broader domains. This creates an institutional imbalance where climate adaptation is legally framed as a primary concern for designated protected areas but remains a secondary or implicit task for the regulators of the wider marine environment, a structure misaligned with the pervasive nature of the climate threat.

4.5. Sectoral Policies and Climate-Specific Strategies

Alongside the primary legislation, a series of national policies and strategies articulate the government's intended response to climate change.

4.5.1. An Examination of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)

The 2007 NAPA was Sierra Leone's first major strategic document addressing climate change. It correctly identified "Coastal Zones and Marine Ecosystems" and "Fisheries" as key areas of vulnerability. The NAPA proposed a list of priority adaptation projects, including the development of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan, rehabilitation of degraded coastal habitats (such as mangroves), promotion of sustainable fishing, and improvement of marine meteorological services. The NAPA serves as a foundational policy document, and its recommendations provide a benchmark against which subsequent legal and institutional developments can be measured.

4.5.2. Integration of Marine Biodiversity Concerns in National Climate Change Policies

Since the NAPA, Sierra Leone has developed a more comprehensive suite of climate policies, including the National Climate Change Policy, Strategy and Action Plan (NCCS&AP) and the initial National Adaptation Plan (iNAP). These documents aim to mainstream climate change considerations into national development planning. A key task of this thesis is to critically assess the degree to which the specific threats to marine biodiversity—such as ocean acidification and mangrove loss—are explicitly and adequately addressed within the strategic priorities and action points of these high-level climate policies.

4.6. Table 4.1: Matrix of National Legal Provisions and their Alignment with International Obligations

To synthesize the analysis of this chapter, the following table provides a systematic mapping of Sierra Leone's key domestic legal provisions against its corresponding international obligations. This matrix serves to visually and analytically identify areas of legal congruence, partial alignment, and apparent gaps in the domestication of international law.

This matrix reveals a pattern of "framework legislation." Sierra Leone has been successful in establishing institutions (EPA, NPAA) and adopting modern principles in its primary laws. However, there is a consistent failure to follow through with the specific, detailed regulations or to domesticate the most relevant regional protocols that would give these frameworks operational force. The legal architecture appears robust at a high level but lacks the detailed substance required to address complex, cross-cutting challenges like climate change, creating a foundation of symbolic legislation that is difficult to implement and enforce effectively.

CHAPTER 5: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPLEMENTATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND INSTITUTIONAL EFFICACY

While the preceding chapters established that Sierra Leone possesses a multi-layered legal framework for environmental protection, this chapter transitions from a doctrinal analysis of the law on the books to a critical evaluation of the law in action. The effectiveness of any legal regime is ultimately determined by its implementation and enforcement. This chapter will argue that despite the de jure framework, a convergence of institutional fragmentation, severe resource constraints, weak enforcement capacity, and a lack of overarching political prioritization renders the legal response to climate change's impact on marine biodiversity largely ineffective.

5.1. The Efficacy of Environmental Impact Assessments in Practice

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process, mandated by the EPA Act, is theoretically one of the state's most powerful preventative tools for protecting the coastal environment. It is designed to identify and mitigate the potential environmental harm of development projects before they commence. In practice, however, the EIA process in Sierra Leone is widely criticized as being procedurally flawed and substantively ineffective. Scholarly reviews and reports indicate that the enforcement of EIA requirements and the monitoring of compliance with license conditions are exceptionally weak. This is particularly evident in sectors with powerful economic interests, such as mining, where environmental regulations are often circumvented or ignored with little consequence. There is a pervasive sense that EIAs are treated as a bureaucratic hurdle to be cleared—a "paper exercise"—rather than a meaningful tool for environmental protection. Crucially for coastal resilience, there is little evidence to suggest that the current EIA process systematically incorporates climate change projections. Projects in the coastal zone may be approved without a rigorous assessment of their vulnerability to future sea-level rise or increased storm intensity, thereby locking in future risks and undermining long-term adaptation efforts.

5.2. Challenges in Fisheries Management: Overfishing, IUU Fishing, and Climate Stressors

The Fisheries and Aquaculture Act of 2018 formally adopts modern, sustainable principles such as the precautionary and ecosystem-based approaches. However, the reality of Sierra Leone's fisheries sector is one of a resource under siege, where these legal principles are undermined by deeply entrenched practical challenges. The artisanal sector, which accounts for the bulk of the national catch, remains poorly regulated, with little effective control over fishing effort. A more significant problem is the prevalence of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, particularly by foreign industrial trawlers operating within the Inshore Exclusion Zone (IEZ) reserved for artisanal fishers. This illegal activity depletes fish stocks, destroys marine habitats, and directly conflicts with the livelihoods of local communities. The state's capacity for monitoring, control, and surveillance (MCS) is notoriously inadequate to police its vast Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Climate change acts as a potent "threat multiplier" in this context. The impacts of warming, acidification, and habitat loss place additional stress on fish stocks that are already being exploited at unsustainable levels due to weak governance and IUU fishing. This makes the implementation of the Act's sustainable principles both more critical and substantially more difficult, pushing the entire fisheries sector closer to collapse.

5.3. Institutional Mandates and Inter-Agency Coordination

Effective governance of a complex, cross-cutting issue like climate change in the marine environment requires seamless coordination among multiple government bodies. In Sierra Leone, the legal framework has instead created a fragmented institutional landscape characterized by overlapping mandates, jurisdictional gaps, and a lack of effective collaboration. 5.3.1. The Roles of the EPA, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR), and NPAA The three key institutions with mandates over the marine environment are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR), and the National Protected Areas Authority (NPAA). The EPA has a broad mandate for overall environmental protection and pollution control. The MFMR is responsible for the management, development, and conservation of all living aquatic resources. The NPAA is tasked with overseeing national parks and protected areas, including future Marine Protected Areas. 5.3.2. Overlaps, Gaps, and Conflicts in Jurisdictional Authority The piecemeal evolution of Sierra Leone's environmental legislation has created a system where these mandates overlap and conflict, leading to institutional paralysis. By creating specialized agencies at different times without an overarching legal framework for integrated ocean governance, the law itself has inadvertently fostered the institutional silos that now plague implementation. For example, a critical mangrove ecosystem could simultaneously be considered part of a Community Fisheries Management Area (under MFMR), a potential Marine Protected Area (under NPAA), and a fragile coastal ecosystem requiring protection from land-based pollution (under EPA). In the absence of a legally mandated, high-level coordinating body, it is unclear which agency has the ultimate authority and responsibility to lead a holistic management effort. This jurisdictional ambiguity allows complex problems to fall through the cracks, as no single institution has the clear lead and comprehensive mandate to address them. This structural flaw is a primary reason why calls for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), present in policy documents for over a decade, have failed to translate into a functioning governance system. 5.4. Barriers to Effective Enforcement Even where the law is clear and mandates are assigned, the capacity to enforce the law is severely limited by a range of deep-seated barriers.

5.4.1. Resource and Capacity Constraints

The institutions tasked with environmental protection are chronically underfunded and under-resourced. Reports consistently highlight a lack of financial resources, inadequate technical equipment, and a shortage of trained human personnel as crippling factors. The Institute of Marine Biology and Oceanography (IMBO), the country's primary marine research body, lacks a research vessel, making it impossible to conduct the systematic stock assessments and environmental monitoring required by law. Enforcement agencies lack the patrol boats, surveillance technology, and staff to effectively police the country's waters against IUU fishing. This resource deficit renders many legal provisions effectively unenforceable.

5.4.2. Lack of Political Will and Competing Economic Interests

Environmental protection often conflicts with powerful, short-term economic interests, particularly from the mining and industrial fishing sectors. A lack of high-level political will to prioritize long-term environmental sustainability over immediate revenue generation is a significant barrier to enforcement. Corruption and political interference can undermine the independence of regulatory agencies, leading to a culture of impunity where environmental laws are flouted by well-connected actors. 5.4.3. Deficiencies in Monitoring, Data Collection, and Scientific Research The Fisheries and Aquaculture Act mandates that management be based on the "best scientific evidence available". However, there is a "marked absence of permanent programmes for systematic monitoring and assessment of the quality of the coastal and marine environment". The lack of baseline data on fish stocks, water quality, biodiversity levels, and the precise rate of coastal change makes it impossible to formulate scientifically sound management plans, set sustainable quotas, or assess the effectiveness of conservation measures. The absence of a National Hydrographic Unit further exemplifies this systemic failure to invest in the foundational scientific infrastructure needed for effective ocean governance. This data vacuum forces regulators to operate in a state of reactive crisis management rather than proactive, evidence-based planning.

5.5. The Role of Public Participation and Access to Justice

While laws such as the EPA Act provide for public consultation in the EIA process, the practical ability of affected coastal communities to participate effectively is questionable. High levels of poverty, low literacy rates, and a lack of access to legal and scientific expertise can prevent these communities from meaningfully engaging in decision-making processes or challenging harmful projects through legal channels. The judiciary itself is often ill-equipped to handle complex environmental cases, a fact acknowledged within the legal community, which sees environmental law as an "emerging area" requiring specialized training for judges and magistrates. This combination of factors effectively disenfranchises the very people who are most affected by marine environmental degradation and climate change. The result is a "perfect storm" of governance failure, where ambitious laws are rendered impotent by the convergence of under-resourced institutions, fragmented authority, weak political will, and an absent scientific foundation, leaving Sierra Leone's marine biodiversity and the communities that depend on it dangerously exposed.

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This thesis has undertaken a comprehensive analysis of the legal reactions to the impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity in Sierra Leone. It has examined the scientific and socio-economic context of the crisis, delineated the extensive obligations under international and regional law, and conducted a doctrinal and practical assessment of the domestic legal and institutional framework. This final chapter synthesizes the core findings of the research, provides direct answers to the guiding research questions, and puts forward a set of concrete, actionable recommendations for legal and institutional reform.

6.1. Summary of Findings and Synthesis of the Argument

The central argument of this thesis is that Sierra Leone is caught in a profound disjuncture between its legal commitments and its practical capacity to protect its marine environment. The nation has, on paper, a sophisticated, multi-layered legal framework that incorporates modern principles of environmental management and reflects its obligations under major international treaties. However, this de jure framework is rendered largely ineffective by a "perfect storm" of systemic failures in implementation and enforcement.

The analysis has revealed that this inefficacy stems not from a single point of failure, but from the convergence of multiple, mutually reinforcing weaknesses. These include:

(1) a fragmented institutional landscape with overlapping and conflicting mandates that preclude integrated coastal management; (2) chronic and severe under-resourcing of key environmental agencies, crippling their capacity for monitoring, control, and surveillance; (3) a persistent lack of high-level political will to prioritize long-term environmental sustainability over short-term economic interests, leading to weak enforcement against powerful actors; and (4) a critical deficit in the scientific data and monitoring infrastructure required for evidence-based policymaking. Paradoxically, the piecemeal legislative approach has itself contributed to this problem by creating institutional silos rather than an integrated governance architecture. Consequently, the legal system is failing in its primary duty to safeguard the marine biodiversity that underpins Sierra Leone's food security, economic stability, and the livelihoods of its coastal population from the escalating threats of climate change.

6.2. Answering the Research Questions

The findings of this thesis provide the basis for direct answers to the research questions posed in Chapter 1.

What are the specific obligations of Sierra Leone under international, regional, and national law?Sierra Leone is bound by a web of interlocking obligations to protect marine biodiversity from climate change. The UNFCCC and Paris Agreement mandate adaptation planning and the conservation of coastal ecosystems. The CBD requires the establishment of protected areas and the restoration of degraded ecosystems. UNCLOS imposes a general and binding duty to protect and preserve the marine environment from all sources of pollution. The Abidjan Convention and its protocols provide a regional mandate for Integrated Coastal Zone Management and the sustainable management of mangroves. Domestically, the EPA Act, Fisheries Act, and NPAA Act translate these principles into national law, creating a comprehensive, albeit fragmented, set of legal duties.

• How are key climate impacts addressed in domestic instruments?Key impacts are acknowledged in policy documents like the NAPA and iNAP, which identify coastal zones and fisheries as priorities. However, their treatment in binding statutory law is inconsistent. Sea-level rise and coastal erosion are addressed implicitly through the EIA process, but without specific, mandatory criteria for climate risk assessment. Ocean acidification is largely absent from the legal and policy discourse. Mangrove degradation is addressed by the mandate of the NPAA and the EPA, but without a dedicated, well-resourced national restoration program as envisioned by the regional protocol.
• What are the primary barriers to effective implementation?The primary barriers are institutional, financial, and political. They include: jurisdictional conflicts between the EPA, MFMR, and NPAA; a severe lack of funding, trained personnel, and essential equipment (e.g., patrol and research vessels); weak enforcement of existing laws (e.g., on IUU fishing and EIA compliance) due to a lack of political will and corruption; and a systemic absence of scientific monitoring and data to inform management decisions.

Primary Question: To what extent does the existing legal framework

effectively address the adverse impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity?The framework is largely ineffective. While it succeeds in establishing the necessary institutions and adopting modern legal principles on paper, it fails to translate these into tangible, protective outcomes on the water. The profound implementation and enforcement gap means that the law provides little practical defense against the compounding pressures of climate change and other anthropogenic stressors, leaving marine biodiversity and dependent communities highly vulnerable.

6.3. Recommendations for Legal and Institutional Reform

The following recommendations are targeted, pragmatic, and directly derived from the analysis of the legal and institutional gaps identified in this thesis. They are designed to be mutually reinforcing, aiming to build a more coherent, capable, and accountable system of marine environmental governance.

6.3.1. Legislative Amendments: Mainstreaming Climate Change into Sectoral Laws

Amend the Environment Protection Agency Act, 2022: The Act should be amended to make climate change impact assessment a mandatory, specific, and non-discretionary component of all Environmental Impact Assessments for projects located within the coastal zone. The amendment should require that EIAs explicitly model and address risks from projected sea-level rise, storm surge, and flooding over the project's lifespan.

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Amend the Fisheries and Aquaculture Act, 2018: The Act should be amended to include an explicit statutory mandate for the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources to develop, implement, and report on a climate adaptation strategy for the fisheries sector. This would legally require the Ministry to integrate climate considerations into all Fisheries Management Plans.

Enact an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Act: To resolve the critical issue of institutional fragmentation, Parliament should enact a standalone, overarching ICZM Act. This Act would establish a unified legal basis for coastal governance, clearly delineating the roles and responsibilities of all relevant agencies and creating a mandatory framework for cross-sectoral planning and decision-making in the coastal zone.

6.3.2. Institutional Strengthening: Enhancing Inter-Agency Collaboration and Capacity

Establish a National Council for Ocean and Coastal Governance: A high-level coordinating body, established by statute (ideally within the proposed ICZM Act), should be created. To ensure it has the necessary political authority to overcome inter-ministerial disputes, it should be chaired at a senior level, such as the Office of the Vice President. The Council must have mandated representation from the EPA, MFMR, NPAA, Ministry of Lands, Ministry of Transport and Aviation, and the Maritime Administration, and be tasked with overseeing the implementation of a national ocean policy.

Launch a Targeted Capacity-Building and Resource Mobilization

Program: The Government, with support from international partners, should initiate a long-term, targeted program to address the resource deficits in the EPA, MFMR, and NPAA. This must go beyond short-term workshops and focus on providing essential assets (patrol boats, monitoring equipment, a marine research vessel) and developing sustained in-country expertise in marine science, environmental law enforcement, and climate data analysis.

6.3.3. Policy Recommendations: Towards a National Ocean Policy and Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework Expedite Ratification and Domestication of Abidjan Convention

Protocols: The Government of Sierra Leone should prioritize the immediate ratification of the Additional Protocols to the Abidjan Convention on Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Sustainable Management of Mangroves. Following ratification, their provisions should be swiftly domesticated into national law, providing a robust legal foundation for action in these critical areas.

Formulate a Comprehensive National Ocean Policy: Building on the work of the proposed National Council, Sierra Leone should develop its first comprehensive National Ocean Policy. This policy should provide a strategic vision that integrates 2.

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climate adaptation, biodiversity conservation, sustainable economic development (the "blue economy"), and maritime security, guiding all future legislation and investment in the marine sector.

6.4. Avenues for Future Research

This thesis has laid the groundwork for further scholarly inquiry into several critical areas. Future research could profitably explore:

• The Potential for Climate Litigation in Sierra Leone: An analysis of the domestic legal avenues available for citizens and communities to hold the government or corporate actors accountable for climate-related environmental damage.
• The Role of Customary Law in Marine Governance: An in-depth study of how traditional and customary resource management practices can be integrated with the formal legal system to enhance community-based conservation and climate adaptation.
• An Economic Analysis of Climate Inaction: A detailed economic modeling study to quantify the long-term costs of failing to implement the reforms recommended in this thesis, versus the economic and social benefits of investing in a resilient and sustainable marine environment.

Appendices

• Appendix A: Key Provisions of the Environment Protection Agency Act, 2022.
• Appendix B: Key Provisions of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Act, 2018.
• Appendix C: Map of Sierra Leone's Coastline Highlighting Vulnerable Areas.

Works cited

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