A literature review on the reform of renewable energy law in Sierra Leone.
The Need for Legal Reforms in Renewable Energy to Leverage Climate Resilience and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector of Sierra Leone: A Comprehensive Literature Review Abstract Sierra Leone is positioned at a critical juncture in its pursuit of sustainable economic growth, climate resilience, and universal energy access. Despite abundant renewable energy potential—particularly in solar, hydro, and biomass—the nation’s energy sector remains fundamentally constrained by systemic inefficiencies, over-reliance on fossil fuels, and profound infrastructural deficits. This comprehensive literature review critically examines the intersection of energy transition pathways, climate vulnerability, and the overarching need for robust legal and regulatory reforms in Sierra Leone. Drawing upon a synthesis of eight authoritative studies encompassing technical energy modeling (LEAP and OSEMOSYS), macroeconomic barrier analysis, climate finance potential, and legal-institutional frameworks, this review argues that technical solutions and policy ambitions are fundamentally insufficient without an enabling legal environment. Theoretical frameworks, notably the Law and Development Theory and the Policy-Performance Nexus, are deployed to illustrate how weak institutional governance, fragmented regulatory architectures, and the absence of targeted investor protections stymie Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and climate finance. By bridging the gap between techno-economic forecasting and jurisprudential reform, this review establishes that sweeping legislative overhauls—encompassing standardized power purchase agreements, decentralized energy governance, and stringent anti-corruption mechanisms—are the indispensable catalysts for unlocking Sierra Leone's sustainable development and climate resilience goals.
1. Introduction
The transition toward renewable energy is not merely a technological substitution but a profound socio-economic and legal transformation, particularly for developing nations grappling with the dual burdens of energy poverty and climate vulnerability. In Sierra Leone, the energy sector is characterized by a paradox: a vast, untapped repository of renewable energy resources coexists with one of the lowest electricity access rates in the world.[^1] The reliance on imported fossil fuels and traditional biomass not only places a severe strain on the nation's fragile macroeconomic stability but also exacerbates environmental degradation, thereby undermining overarching climate resilience and sustainable development objectives.[^2] Historically, the discourse surrounding energy in Sub-Saharan Africa has heavily favored techno-centric and purely economic analyses, often relegating the legal and institutional frameworks to the periphery. However, contemporary scholarship increasingly recognizes that ambitious national policies, such as Sierra Leone's commitments to net-zero emissions by 2050, are fundamentally unattainable in a legal vacuum.[^3] The transition necessitates colossal capital mobilization, primarily through Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and international climate finance, which are inherently risk-averse and demand predictable, enforceable, and transparent legal environments.[^4] This literature review critically synthesizes recent academic contributions to construct a cohesive narrative on the indispensability of legal reforms in Sierra Leone’s energy sector. It interrogates the current state of energy supply and demand forecasting, assesses the macroeconomic and governance barriers to sustainable growth, and evaluates the pathways to net-zero emissions. By anchoring these technical and economic realities within the frameworks of institutional economics and the policy-performance nexus, the review highlights the critical gaps in the existing regulatory architecture. Ultimately, it posits that leveraging climate resilience and sustainable development in Sierra Leone is contingent upon deliberate, comprehensive, and progressive legal reforms that secure investor confidence, mandate energy efficiency, and empower local communities.
2. Theoretical Frameworks: Law, Institutions, and Performance
To appropriately situate the need for legal reform within the broader context of Sierra Leone's sustainable development, it is necessary to examine the theoretical underpinnings that explain the relationship between legal institutions and economic outcomes. The reviewed literature provides two vital theoretical lenses: the Law and Development Theory, and the Policy-Performance Nexus.
2.1 The Law and Development Theory and Institutional Economics
In her seminal thesis on FDI in Sierra Leone’s renewable energy sector, Tengbe anchors her analysis in the "Law and Development" theory, heavily drawing upon the institutional economics championed by Douglass North.[^5] North postulates that capitalist development and functioning markets are not naturally occurring phenomena; rather, they are the deliberate products of "institutions," which he defines as the humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic, and social interaction.[^6] In the context of economic growth, these institutions—primarily laws, property rights, and contract enforcement mechanisms—create an incentive structure that either encourages or deters investment.
Tengbe leverages this framework to argue that Sierra Leone's inability to attract sufficient FDI for renewable energy is not primarily a function of geographical or technical deficits, but an institutional failure.[^7] The legal framework acts as the critical independent variable. When laws are ambiguous, property rights insecure, and dispute resolution mechanisms unreliable, transaction costs escalate, rendering projects unbankable. The Law and Development theory underscores that reforming the energy sector requires deliberate state action to reconstruct the legal architecture, thereby creating an "enabling environment" that allows private investors to capture the returns of their societal investments securely.
While Tengbe notes criticisms of this theory—such as Ohnesorge's argument that economic development is multifactorial and cannot be solely attributed to legal institutions[^8]—the consensus in the context of capital-intensive energy infrastructure remains clear: without a foundational legal framework mitigating off-taker and sovereign risks, technological potential remains immobilized.
2.2 The Policy-Performance Nexus
Complementing the institutional economics approach is the "Policy-Performance Nexus" explored by Harvey et al. in their investigation of Sierra Leone's energy service delivery.[^9] This framework seeks to address a persistent paradox in developing nations: why do seemingly ambitious, well-drafted policies repeatedly fail to translate into tangible, improved service delivery on the ground?
Harvey et al. demonstrate that Sierra Leone has not suffered from a lack of policy formulation. Over the years, numerous energy policies and master plans have been drafted with the assistance of international development partners.[^10] However, the actual performance—measured by electrification rates, grid reliability, and utility financial viability—remains chronically poor. The authors identify a profound dislocation between policy intent and implementation reality, characterized by weak administrative governance, over-dependence on donor-driven interventions, and an absence of binding accountability mechanisms.[^11] This nexus highlights the limitations of "soft law" (policies and strategies) in the absence of "hard law" (statutory mandates and enforceable regulations). When policies are not backed by rigorous legal frameworks that mandate standards, independent regulatory oversight, and community ownership, they devolve into aspirational documents. Harvey et al.’s findings implicitly argue that legal reform is required to bridge the gap in the policy-performance nexus, transforming passive policy goals into actionable legal obligations that bind state utilities, private actors, and regulators alike.[^12] 3. The Current State of Sierra Leone’s Energy Sector: Technical Realities To understand the magnitude of the legal reforms required, one must first comprehend the technical and infrastructural realities of Sierra Leone's energy landscape. Recent forecasting models utilized by scholars reveal a sector heavily burdened by inefficiencies and unsustainable practices.
3.1 Energy Supply and Demand Forecasting: The LEAP Model Assessment
Conteh et al. provide a foundational technical analysis of the sector through a long-term forecast of Sierra Leone's energy supply and demand from 2019 to 2040, utilizing the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning (LEAP) model.[^13] The LEAP model is an internationally recognized software tool for energy policy analysis and climate change assessment.
The baseline data presented by Conteh et al. paints a stark picture: Sierra Leone’s energy matrix is overwhelmingly dominated by traditional biomass. In the base year, biomass (predominantly firewood and charcoal) accounted for an alarming 78.4% of total energy consumption, largely utilized in the residential sector for cooking and heating.[^14] Petroleum products, heavily relied upon for transportation and backup diesel generators due to grid unreliability, accounted for 13.9%, while electricity constituted a mere 7.7% of the total energy mix.[^15] Projecting into the future under a "Business as Usual" (BAU) scenario, Conteh et al. forecast that total energy demand will surge from 59.81 million Gigajoules (GJ) in 2019 to an estimated 100.28 million GJ by 2040.[^16] Without structural interventions, this trajectory implies a massive escalation in deforestation, localized air pollution, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The authors model an alternative "Sustainable Power Generation" (SPG) scenario, which necessitates aggressive investments in solar photovoltaic (PV), hydroelectric power, and bioenergy. However, the realization of the SPG scenario requires capital outlays and technical capacity far beyond the current means of the state utility, the Electricity Distribution and Supply Authority (EDSA). The study implicitly underscores that transitioning from the BAU to the SPG pathway cannot be achieved through state budgeting alone; it strictly requires private sector participation, which, as established by Tengbe, is contingent upon comprehensive legal safeguards.[^17] 3.2 The Infrastructure Deficit and WAPP Integration Beyond the generation mix, the physical infrastructure of the grid poses immense challenges. The grid network is highly fragmented, with substantial technical and commercial losses. While initiatives like the integration into the West African Power Pool (WAPP) via the CLSG (Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea) interconnection line offer a lifeline for imported electricity, they do not resolve domestic generation deficits.[^18] Relying on imported electricity exposes the nation to external supply shocks, currency depreciation, and foreign exchange shortages.
Consequently, the technical imperative is twofold: drastically expand domestic renewable generation capacity (both grid-connected and decentralized mini-grids) and overhaul transmission infrastructure. Both imperatives are capital intensive. Therefore, technical assessments like those of Conteh et al. serve as the empirical for the urgent legal reforms needed to mobilize the required capital.[^19] 4. Climate Resilience, Vulnerability, and Net-Zero Pathways The energy sector is inextricably linked to Sierra Leone's climate vulnerability. The country is consistently ranked among the most vulnerable globally to the adverse impacts of climate change, facing severe threats from extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and shifting precipitation patterns.
4.1 Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction
Saber et al., in their comprehensive review of climate change adaptation (CCA) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) in Africa, provide critical context regarding the environmental fragility of the region.[^20] The authors highlight that Africa’s vulnerability is compounded by high reliance on climate-sensitive sectors (like agriculture and hydro-dependent energy), rapid unplanned urbanization, and inadequate early warning systems.
For Sierra Leone, the implications are profound. The devastating 2017 Freetown mudslides and recurrent seasonal flooding are stark reminders of this vulnerability. From an energy perspective, the heavy reliance on hydroelectric power (such as the Bumbuna Dam) makes the national grid highly susceptible to climate-induced droughts and changing rainfall patterns.[^21] Saber et al. emphasize the necessity of integrating CCA and DRR into national planning.[^22] In the energy sector, this means building "climate-resilient" infrastructure—diversifying the energy mix away from singular reliance on vulnerable hydro towards a balanced portfolio including solar and wind, and decentralizing the grid through mini-grids that can withstand localized disasters. Legally, this requires environmental impact assessments (EIAs) that strictly incorporate climate risk modeling, a regulatory mandate currently underdeveloped in Sierra Leonean law.
4.2 Assessing Net-Zero Pathways: The OSEMOSYS Model
Complementing the resilience discourse is the imperative of mitigation. Bakarra et al. utilize a mixed-modeling approach, soft-linking the Open-Source Energy Modelling System (OSEMOSYS) and LEAP frameworks, to explore transition pathways for Sierra Leone to achieve net-zero goals by 2050.[^23] Bakarra et al. developed four distinct scenarios: Business as Usual (BAU), High Import (H_Imp), Net Zero (NZ), and Renewable Energy (RE). The findings are revealing. Under the BAU scenario, the continued reliance on Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) and diesel for electricity generation leads to an unsustainable escalation in both costs and carbon emissions.[^24] The High Import scenario, while reducing domestic emissions, transfers energy security risks to neighboring nations and exacerbates balance-of-payment deficits.
The Net Zero and Renewable Energy scenarios demonstrate that transitioning to a low-carbon pathway is technologically feasible and, over the long term, economically superior due to the elimination of volatile fossil fuel import costs. However, Bakarra et al. emphasize that the upfront capital expenditure required for the NZ and RE pathways is astronomical.[^25] The authors argue that achieving these goals requires not just technical capacity, but a radical shift in energy strategy. While Bakarra et al. focus on the techno-economic optimization of these pathways, their conclusions logically intersect with the legal domain: without a statutory framework that penalizes carbon emissions, incentivizes renewable adoption through feed-in tariffs, and provides sovereign guarantees for green infrastructure, the optimal OSEMOSYS scenarios remain theoretical exercises rather than attainable realities.[^26] 5. Barriers to Sustainable Energy Development To formulate effective legal reforms, it is imperative to dissect the specific barriers obstructing sustainable economic growth and renewable energy deployment in Sierra Leone. The literature categorizes these into macroeconomic, governance, and financial impediments.
5.1 Macroeconomic and Institutional Barriers
Alamad’s rapid evidence review meticulously documents the broader barriers to inclusive and sustainable economic growth in Sierra Leone.[^27] The macroeconomic environment is highly volatile, characterized by high inflation rates, severe currency depreciation (the Leone against the US Dollar), and mounting debt distress. For energy investors, whose capital investments are typically in foreign currency (USD or Euros)
but whose revenues are generated in local currency via consumer tariffs, this presents an existential risk. Without legal mechanisms such as currency convertibility guarantees or indexation of tariffs to inflation within Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), the macroeconomic environment acts as a definitive deterrent to FDI.[^28] Furthermore, Alamad highlights systemic institutional barriers, particularly corruption and weak public sector capacity.[^29] Despite the existence of the Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC), the enforcement of anti-graft laws in large-scale procurement and infrastructure contracting remains inconsistent. Rent-seeking behaviors in the issuance of licenses, environmental permits, and land rights dramatically increase project lead times and costs, effectively pricing out legitimate renewable energy developers.
5.2 Governance, Donor Dependence, and the Policy Gap
Building upon the institutional weaknesses, Harvey et al. dissect the governance barriers specific to the energy sector.[^30] Their analysis of the policy-performance nexus reveals a sector heavily reliant on donor-funded interventions. While international development partners (e.g., the World Bank, FCDO, Millennium Challenge Corporation) provide critical capital, this reliance creates a fragmented landscape of pilot projects and "ring-fenced" initiatives that lack long-term sustainability. Once donor funding cycles conclude, projects frequently collapse due to the absence of domestic institutional ownership and legal mandates for maintenance and cost-recovery.[^31] Moreover, Harvey et al. identify the limited role of the private sector as a critical barrier.[^32] The state utility holds a virtual monopoly over transmission and distribution, yet lacks the financial solvency and technical efficiency to expand the grid. The regulatory environment fails to provide the necessary comfort for Independent Power Producers (IPPs). There is a profound lack of community ownership in rural electrification efforts; policies describe decentralization, but the legal mechanisms to empower local councils or cooperatives to manage and maintain rural mini-grids are deficient.[^33] 5.3 Climate Finance and Investment Barriers in Sub-Saharan Africa Looking at the broader regional context, Mungai, Ndiritu, and Da Silva provide a critical analysis of the barriers unlocking climate finance for renewable energy and energy efficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa.[^34] Although global climate finance volumes have increased, Africa receives a disproportionately small share.
The authors identify several key barriers:
High Perceived Risk: Investors perceive African energy markets as high-risk environments due to political instability, regulatory flip-flopping, and weak .
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Lack of Bankable Projects: There is a severe deficit of projects structured in a way that meets the rigorous due diligence requirements of international financiers.
Inadequate Policy Frameworks: Many countries lack coherent, legally binding targets for renewable energy, and fail to offer de-risking instruments.
Capacity Constraints: Local financial institutions lack the capacity to assess and underwrite green technology risks.[^35] Mungai et al. argue that unlocking this potential requires systemic policy shifts to de-risk investments. In the context of Sierra Leone, this reiterates the necessity of translating "policies" into "laws." Climate funds (such as the Green Climate Fund) and private equity require statutory certainty, not just ministerial declarations.
6. The Imperative for Legal and Regulatory Reforms
The synthesis of the aforementioned literature unequivocally points to one conclusion: Sierra Leone's technical energy potential is gridlocked by an inadequate legal and regulatory architecture. Legal reform is the critical bridge between the grim baseline models of Conteh et al. and the optimistic net-zero pathways of Bakarra et al.
6.1 Creating an Enabling Environment for FDI
Tengbe’s thesis serves as the primary roadmap for these specific reforms. To attract the FDI necessary to overhaul the energy sector, Sierra Leone must construct a legal environment that proactively mitigates investor risk.[^36]
Standardization of Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs): Currently, PPAs are often negotiated on an ad-hoc, opaque basis, heavily skewed by political expediency. Tengbe advocates for the statutory standardization of PPAs, embedding internationally recognized clauses for force majeure, termination, and dispute resolution.[^37] Crucially, the law must mandate sovereign guarantees or credit enhancement mechanisms (such as escrow accounts or partial risk guarantees backed by multilateral institutions) to protect IPPs against the default risk of the state utility, EDSA.
Tariff Regulation and Cost-Reflectivity: The legal framework governing the Sierra Leone Electricity and Water Regulatory Commission (SLEWRC) requires strengthening. The regulator must be granted absolute statutory independence from the Ministry of Energy to set cost-reflective tariffs. If political considerations dictate that tariffs must be subsidized for end-users, the law must explicitly mandate how the state will compensate the utility or the IPP to cover the shortfall, ensuring financial viability. [^38] 2.
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6.2 Incentive Structures and Taxation Law
To accelerate the adoption of renewable technologies, the tax code and investment laws must be aggressively reformed. Relying on general investment incentives is insufficient. The legal framework should introduce explicit statutory incentives, including:
- Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs): A legally guaranteed pricing structure for renewable electricity fed back into the grid, providing long-term revenue certainty for investors.[^39]
- Fiscal Incentives: Statutory waivers on import duties and Value Added Tax (VAT) for solar PV panels, inverters, batteries, and wind turbines. While some waivers exist ad-hoc, embedding them in law prevents arbitrary revocation by changing administrations.
- Tax Holidays: Mandated corporate tax holidays for IPPs developing utility-scale renewable projects for the first 5-10 years of operation.[^40]
6.3 Legal Frameworks for Decentralization and Mini-Grids Given the fragmented geography and the unviability of extending the national grid to remote areas, off-grid and mini-grid solutions are essential. However, Harvey et al. highlighted the lack of community ownership as a barrier to sustainability.[^41] Legal reforms must establish a distinct regulatory tier for mini-grids. This involves simplified, fast-track licensing procedures for small-scale developers to reduce bureaucratic friction. Furthermore, the law must formalize models for community cooperatives, defining property rights, operational responsibilities, and tariff-setting autonomy at the local level. By legally empowering rural communities to own or co-manage generation assets, the state can ensure better maintenance and revenue collection, mitigating the "tragedy of the commons" often seen in donor-abandoned projects.
6.4 Land Rights and Environmental Law
Renewable energy projects, particularly utility-scale solar and hydro, are land-intensive. Sierra Leone’s dual land tenure system (freehold in the Western Area, customary law in the provinces managed by Paramount Chiefs) presents a massive legal hurdle for investors.[^42] Reforms must create streamlined, transparent legal mechanisms for securing long-term land leases for energy projects in the provinces, protecting investors from subsequent expropriation claims while ensuring fair, legally mandated compensation and resettlement frameworks for local communities.
Additionally, as noted by Saber et al.'s emphasis on climate adaptation, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Act must be updated to mandate rigorous Climate Risk Assessments as a prerequisite for project licensing, ensuring infrastructure is built to withstand future climatic extremes.[^43] 7. Global Trends, Climate Finance, and Policy Responses Sierra Leone's legal reforms cannot occur in a vacuum; they must be harmonized with global responses to climate change to effectively tap into international capital. Adewumi et al. provide a comprehensive policy review of emerging trends and global responses to sustainable energy.[^44] 7.1 Aligning with Global Technological and Financial Trends Adewumi et al. observe that the global energy paradigm is shifting rapidly towards decentralization, digitalization (smart grids), and innovative financing mechanisms (green bonds, carbon pricing).[^45] Sierra Leone’s legal framework must be forward-looking to accommodate these trends.
For instance, the legal definition of an "energy provider" must be expanded to allow for peer-to-peer energy trading among consumers with rooftop solar installations. Furthermore, as the global community implements mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, Sierra Leone needs a robust domestic legal framework to regulate carbon markets. By establishing clear legal ownership of carbon credits generated by domestic renewable energy projects, the state can provide an additional, lucrative revenue stream for IPPs, substantially improving project bankability.[^46] 7.2 Unlocking Climate Finance Mechanisms Mungai et al. stress the potential of climate finance to leapfrog traditional fossil-fuel development.[^47] However, accessing multilateral climate funds (like the GEF or GCF) requires stringent standards, environmental and social safeguards (ESS), and transparent monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems.
Legal reform in Sierra Leone must institutionalize these international standards into domestic law. Creating a legally mandated "National Climate Fund" or "Green Bank," governed by strict statutory transparency rules and insulated from political interference, could serve as a trusted conduit for international climate finance, blending concessional public finance with private commercial capital to de-risk investments.
8. Synthesis and Gap Analysis
A critical synthesis of the eight reviewed documents reveals a compelling narrative: Sierra Leone possesses the technical blueprint and the global mandate to transition to a sustainable, climate-resilient energy future. The forecasting models by Conteh et al. and Bakarra et al. prove the necessity and viability of moving away from biomass and fossil fuels toward renewables. The broader analyses by Alamad, Saber et al., and Adewumi et al. frame this transition as not just an energy issue, but an existential macroeconomic and environmental imperative.
However, a distinct gap exists in the literature between the identification of socio-economic/governance barriers (Harvey et al., Mungai et al.) and the granular legal mechanics required to resolve them. While the literature universally acknowledges the presence of "policy barriers" and "weak governance," only Tengbe delves into the specific juridical interventions—such as PPA structuring, institutional law, and investment —required to dismantle these barriers.[^48] The current body of knowledge is highly compartmentalized. Technologists model emission pathways; economists bemoan inflation and risk; policy analysts critique implementation failures. What is urgently needed in future research, and what this review attempts to synthesize, is a cross-disciplinary approach that translates the technical requirements of the LEAP and OSEMOSYS models into specific statutory language and regulatory codes. The literature lacks empirical legal studies evaluating the actual enforceability of current energy contracts in Sierra Leonean courts, and how the perception of the domestic judiciary impacts the risk premiums demanded by foreign investors. Closing this gap is essential for moving from theoretical models to breaking ground on renewable energy infrastructure.
9. Recommendations for Legal and Policy Frameworks
Based on the extensive synthesis of the literature, the following concrete legal and policy reforms are recommended for Sierra Leone to leverage climate resilience and sustainable development:
Enactment of a Comprehensive Renewable Energy Act: Consolidate fragmented policies into a single, binding parliamentary Act that sets legally enforceable targets for the renewable energy mix, mandates energy efficiency standards, and establishes statutory feed-in tariffs.
Statutory Independence of the Regulatory Commission: Amend the SLEWRC Act to guarantee the absolute financial and operational independence of the regulator, ensuring tariffs are determined by technical and economic realities rather than political cycles.
Standardization and Sovereign Guarantees for PPAs: Draft and legislate standard, bankable Power Purchase Agreements for IPPs, backed by legally binding sovereign guarantees or access to international liquidity support facilities to mitigate off-taker risk.
Reform of Land Tenure for Energy Infrastructure: Introduce targeted legislative mechanisms to streamline the acquisition of long-term land leases for renewable energy projects in customary land areas, balancing investor security with stringent, legally mandated community compensation.
Legal Formalization of Mini-Grid and Off-Grid Sectors: Create a simplified, fast-track regulatory tier for decentralized energy systems, legally empowering local communities and rural councils to own, operate, and collect revenues from local grids.
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Integration of Climate Risk into Environmental Law: Amend the EPA Act to require comprehensive, localized Climate Risk Assessments for all new energy infrastructure, ensuring resilience against flooding, landslides, and droughts as modeled by disaster risk reduction frameworks.
10. Conclusion
Sierra Leone's aspiration to achieve inclusive economic growth, eradicate energy poverty, and build climate resilience is currently bottlenecked by an archaic and fragmented legal framework. As demonstrated by the integration of complex energy models like LEAP and OSEMOSYS, the technical pathways to a net-zero, renewable-dominant energy sector are well-defined. However, technical feasibility does not automatically trigger financial investment. The overarching barriers identified—from macroeconomic volatility to donor dependence and perceived risk—are fundamentally symptoms of institutional fragility.
Drawing upon the Law and Development Theory and the Policy-Performance Nexus, this literature review conclusively establishes that legal reform is the indispensable catalyst for change. To unlock the vast potential of climate finance and Foreign Direct Investment, Sierra Leone must transition from aspirational policy documents to robust, enforceable "hard law." By enacting comprehensive legal reforms that standardize investor protections, ensure regulatory independence, incentivize renewable adoption, and empower decentralized community ownership, Sierra Leone can transform its energy sector. In doing so, it will not only mitigate its vulnerability to climate change but will lay a resilient, sustainable foundation for the nation's future economic prosperity.
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Footnotes
[^1]: Foday Conteh and others, 'Long-Term Forecast of Sierra Leone's Energy Supply and Demand (2019-2040): A LEAP Model Application for Sustainable Power Generation System' (2023) 15 Sustainability 11838, 2. [^2]: Sidi Bakarra and others, 'Assessing the energy transition pathways: Achieving net zero goals in Sierra Leone by 2050'
(2025) 62 Energy Strategy Reviews 101965, 3. [^3]: Albert Harrison Harvey and others, 'Understanding the Policy-Performance Nexus in Sierra Leone’s Energy Sector: Toward a New Framework for Service Delivery' (2025) 12(9) International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation 3747, 3748. [^4]: Ebunoluwa Finda Tengbe, 'Creating an Enabling Environment for Foreign Direct Investment in Renewable Energy through Law Reforms in Sierra Leone' (LLM Thesis, University of Pretoria 2017) 11. [^5]: ibid 12. [^6]: Douglass C North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge University Press 1990) 3. [^7]: Tengbe (n 4) 15. [^8]: JKM Ohnesorge, 'Developing Development Theory: Law and Development Orthodoxies and the Northeast Asian Experience' (2007) 28 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law 219. [^9]: Harvey and others (n 3) 3749. [^10]: ibid 3750. [^11]: ibid 3752. [^12]: ibid 3755. [^13]: Conteh and others (n 1) 4. [^14]: ibid 8. [^15]: ibid
9. [^16]: ibid 12. [^17]: Tengbe (n 4) 22. [^18]: Harvey and others (n 3) 3751. [^19]: Conteh and others (n 1) 15. [^20]: Mohamed Saber and others, 'A comprehensive review of climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction in Africa' (2025) 16(5) Journal of Water and Climate Change 1831, 1833. [^21]: ibid 1835. [^22]: ibid 1840. [^23]: Bakarra and others (n 2) 4. [^24]: ibid 7. [^25]: ibid 10. [^26]: ibid 12. [^27]: Samir Alamad, 'Barriers to Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth in Sierra Leone' (Rapid Evidence Review, Knowledge for Development and Diplomacy 2025) 8. [^28]: ibid 12. [^29]: ibid 15. [^30]: Harvey and others (n 3) 3753. [^31]: ibid 3754. [^32]: ibid 3756. [^33]: ibid 3758. [^34]: Edward M Mungai, S Wagura Ndiritu and Izael Da Silva, 'Unlocking climate finance potential and policy barriers—A case of renewable energy and energy efficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa' (2022) 7 Resources, Environment and Sustainability 100043, 2. [^35]: ibid 5. [^36]: Tengbe (n 4) 30. [^37]: ibid 35. [^38]: ibid 40. [^39]: Adetomi Adewumi and others, 'Sustainable energy solutions and climate change: A policy review of emerging trends and global responses' (2024) 21(02) World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews 408, 412. [^40]: Tengbe (n 4)
45. [^41]: Harvey and others (n 3) 3759. [^42]: Alamad (n 27) 20. [^43]: Saber and others (n 20) 1845. [^44]: Adewumi and others (n 39) 409. [^45]: ibid 415. [^46]:
Mungai and others (n 34) 8. [^47]: ibid 10. [^48]: Tengbe (n 4) 50.